lip 






I 



~> : ^^ 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

J^P -|o P2 ri 9 M|o..Ef | 

JJ/J/ 



' UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 



'M 






% * &3 It 






S X 



44 



Tod* 



9fSM» 















-4 

> ? 



> > ' '> ^ 

3 ) > 3 

3 ■ 5» 3 ? 

> >> 1> > 

3 » ^> > 

3 >^ ^ > 

■/>> v 3 3 

) 3 ;• > > 















33& : 



3 > > ~> 









3> >o 
J» »3 



^3i > 






TUB TAA 



VINDICATION OF THE ISRAEL1TISH WAY OF 
KILLING ANIMALS, 



/ 



SHECHITAH, 



AARON ZEBI FRIEDMAN. 



TRANSLATED FROM THE HEBREW. 



NEW YORK: 

1876. 



%v§f4f 



*/ 



A- 



<l$\ 



ft 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, 

By ABRAHAM FRIEDMAN, 
in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



PREFACE. 



This preface is intended to form the foundation of the pre- 
sent Vork, which I herewith submit to the public. I found it 
the more necessary to premise all here proffered, as I know that 
several of the views expressed in this work may appear strange 
to the medical fraternity, and it may therefore be easily 
inferred that many physicians will oppose me. At all events 
they will propound difficult questions to me on several points. 

For this reason I shall here make known the considerations 
which induced me to write and publish this little work. 

My first proposition is : The Shechitah, or the Jewish 
method of killing animals, although slower, is easier and less 
painful than that caused by blows inflicted on the head ; for no 
shrinkage and contortion of the limbs are perceptible after 
dying through Shechitah, as would be the case with an animal 
that dies in consequence of blows inflicted on its head. 

The reason is the following : Although death does not ensue 
after Shechitah until all the blood has departed from the body, 
we must not forget that there are two kinds of blood in every 
warm-blooded animal : the blood of the members, and the life- 
blood. The blood of the members is the circulating blood and 
is red ; but the life-blood is of a blackish hue. As soon as the 
black blood has departed from the body, the animal dies imme- 
diately. 

The black blood, however, must leave the body before 



even the whole act of Shechitah, viz., the severing of the wind- 
pipe and oesophagus, has been performed ; if, as it is prescribed 
in our religion, not a mere incision into the windpipe and 
oesophagus has been made, but a real separation of the parts 
has taken place, so that they stand apart and the incision is 
apparent. 

Id this case the arteries and veins have been cut, the red 
and black blood flows out, and life is immediately extinct. 

This fact is noticeable in the eyes of the animal immediately 
after Shechitah; for they immediately roll about and are closed 
in their sockets. They shortly afterwards are opened again, 
but they then show that life has departed. 

My second proposition is: Through blows inflicted on the 
brain the blood becomes black and dark. Now, although the 
life-blood, on which the existence of life depends far more than 
on the circulating red blood, has a black color, still any one 
gifted with a good power of observation will easily find that there 
is as much difference between the original clear color of the real 
black life-blood, and that which was originally red and has by 
degeneration become black, as there is a difference between 
pure and clear and dark or putrid water. 

With the naked eye we can distinguish both the red and 
black blood, as well as the mixture of both kinds of blood of 
an animal on which the act of Shechitah has been performed, 
and the blood that has been vitiated by blows inflicted on the 
brain. For the blood of an animal killed by Shechitah is 
clear and pure, but the blood of an animal killed by blows on 
the brain is black and dark. In the latter case the black color 
of the blood is not natural, as is the case with the life-blood of an 
animal in good health or killed by Shechitah. But the black 
color only shows that the blood, whose original color was red, 
has, by degeneration, become black. 

The black color of the life-blood of an animal killed by 
blows is likewise unnaturally black and dark, not clear. 



Although chemistry has not yet investigated and ascertained 
if blood, as an article of food, is wholesome or injurious to the 
human system, still the evidence of Maimonidcs is fully sufficient 
for us, who says: Blood begets cruelty, not only in the person who 
partakes of it, but that cruelty is also inherited by his future 
offspring. The Bible also enjoins on us very emphatically 
(Dent. xii. 2S) : "Only be sure that thou eat not the blood, 
for the blood is the life." 

And by our own reason we can also ascertain the effect the 
eating of blood has on 1 lie system. For every article of food 
can only produce that effect on the system which is inherent in 
it. Now the nature of the animal is free from all vices, and 
void of all virtues. There is neither envy nor hatred, neither 
honor nor pride, neither bash fulness nor repentance, neither 
kindness nor probity to be found in an animal. The whole 
ornament of oxen is their horns. With them they gore one 
another, indicting injury or even death, without, however, 
being possessed of any of the vices mentioned. And although 
they gore one another as often as they meet, still they do not 
hate eaeli other. They only do so because the inclination of 
doing so is innate in them. 

If, then, any one eats blood, he partakes of its properties, 
and transfers them also to his children after him. For by 
means of food body and soul are kept united, and therefore 
food exercises its influence both on body and soul. Taste 
itself is more spiritual than corporeal. Maimonides, there- 
fore, is fully correct. But this is only the case with the blood, 
which is life itself, and which alone has the effects described. 
In it we find all those properties which are unbecoming to the 
foremost of all creatures — man. But we do not find these 
properties in the flesh, as that has no will of its own and waits 
with the members of the body for the orders of the spirit, in 
order to execute them and be guided by them. 

My third proposition is : 



Beside the special functions which all members of the body 
have to perform for the preservation of the body, they also have 
to perform spiritual ones for the strengthening of body and 
soul. For instance, the mouth has to nourish and strength- 
en the body by eating and drinking. This is the bodily func- 
tion, without which life would cease. But the mouth is also 
the organ of the voice, which is quite necessary for the preser- 
vation of the whole race of animals. For by the voice the 
different animals recognize and call one another. 

This becomes yet more apparent if we consider the human 
voice; for every one of the five organs of speech in the first 
place serves its part to support our system by providing it 
with proper food. 

The lips, which are the doors of the mouth, and open to 
receive the food, and close to prevent the food from falling out, 
produce the labial letters. 

The teeth, which bite and grind the food, produce the den- 
tal letters. 

The tongue, which turns the food about in the mouth, for 
its thorough mastication, produces the lingual letters. 

The palate, whose function is to taste, produces the palatal 
letters. 

The windpipe, which promotes the digestion of the food by 
providing it with saliva, produces the guttural letters. 

Likewise the brain, which gives strength to all members, 
produces thought. 

The hands, with which we work, have also the power of 
feeling. The urinary organs likewise subserve genital purposes. 
The kidneys, which prepare the urine, are the advisory organs 
of the soul. In the heart, which is the source of the blood, wis- 
dom resides. 

And this is the case with all organs. They all have to serve 
two masters, the body and the soul. This means : they have 
to perform bodily functions for the preservation of the body, 
and spiritual functions for the preservation of the 60ul. 



But my theory must not be refuted by offering me the 
instance of a man who was sick with the laughing sickness, and 
whose spleen had been removed from his body, and yet was 
not cured by such operation. For it may be the sickness was 
incurable, because the veins were affected and diseased up to 
the heart and brain. In this case the sickness could not be 
cured any more, as I have explained in rule YIII. 

My fourth proposition concerns animals of prey. They vent 
their rage and fury, that burn like firej upon the bodies of the 
animals attacked by them, through their crooked nails and 
teeth. The formation of the feet and teeth of animals of prey 
indicates that. For it lies in the nature of animals to walk on 
their paws and feet. Why now have the nails of animals of 
prey been created pointed and crooked and their teeth like- 
wise, if it were not that they have another function to perform 
by means of those nails and teeth, viz., to devour other animals 
and to pour their venom into them ? 

This instinct to devour other animals in their wrath and 
fury, animals of prey cannot resist. But they can only give 
vent to their furious instinct by means of the organization of 
their members, which the Creator has thus shaped and formed 
for that purpose. 

But my proposition must not be refuted by the argument 
held out to me, that we know instances of men who were 
attacked and wounded by animals of prey and were cured. 
For we cannot draw a parallel between man and other living 
beings. Concerning man, the Lord ordained (Gen. ix. 2): 
" And the fear of you and the dread of you shall be on all the 
animals of the earth and all the fowls of the heaven." But all 
the other animals are killed by the poison of animals of prey. 

There are, however, two kinds of animals, whose venom kills 
even man, viz., the serpent, in reference to which Adam was 
cursed by the words (Gen. iii. 15): "And thou shalt wound his 
heel," and mad animals. For their sickness or madness derives 



its origin also from the curse that was pronounced over Adam, 
and therefore they can injure man by their poison. 

But no other animal besides the two mentioned is able to 
injure man in this way. 

But the words of our Rabbins deserve full credence, that 
beasts of prey have poison in their teeth and nails, to tear and 
kill the animals attacked by them. 

Still our sages set a limit both to the devouring and the 
devoured animal, that means, they tell us which animals can be 
killed by the poison of certain animals and which not. 

And the animals that can kill by their poison can do so only 
with certain members, adapted to that purpose, and only if 
those members are in their sound, perfect state, and connected 
with the body, but not otherwise. 

Nor can the serpent bite except when in anger, in which 
state it pours out its venom through the biting of its teeth and 
the spittle of its mouth. 

But if the tongue and teeth of the serpent, by which it bites, 
have been removed, it becomes harmless, though it be full of 
rage and anger. Nor can the tongue and teeth of a lion or 
leopard iniiict a mortal wound after they have been separated 
from the body of those animals. 

If, for instance, a man took a lion's teeth or claws and scratched 
an animal, even if he did that in the most violent passion and 
the fiercest anger, he still could not work any fatal injury, 
because the teeth and claws of animals of prey are only the ser- 
vants of those animals themselves and not of any other being. 

Likewise, if a serpent bites in its wrath into an inanimate 
object, although it pours out its wrath and spittle over that 
object, still the venom evaporates and becomes powerless in the 
air, just as it is the case with any hot liquid that is exposed to 
free air for some time, and loses in this way its power and lire. 

For the Creator has ordained all things to work in a certain 
way, and in no other. 



TUB TAAM. 



The following letter has been sent by the Society for the 
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals to Mr. Henry Westheimer: 

Rooms of the Society, ) 

No. 826 Broadway, Corner of 12th Street. ) 

New Yoke, January 9, 1866. 
Mr. Henry Westheimer: 

Sir: — An employee in the service of this society reports to 
me that the cruelty inflicted — needlessly— on dumb animals 
while slaughtering them at your establishment, is of the most 
barbarous, revolting, and wicked character. 
. This statement has before been communicated to this society, 
and it is proper that I call your attention to the fact, with a 
view to its immediate correction. 

You are forbidden by the laws of this State, as well as that 
higher law of God, thus to mangle and torture his creatures. 

You should, at least, so far feel for the miserable lot of the 
creatures which support, and in so many ways contribute to the 
well-being of mankind, by killing them with merciful dispatch, 
and in no way can this be so perfectly done as by a blow from 
a pointed axe upon the head. 

At any rate, these horrible scenes must end, and you must 
not suppose that the laws of this State are to be daily violated 
by you without responsibility any more than by any other cit- 
izen. 



10 

If you believe that there is a God in Heaven — tremble ! for 
you may be certain that misfortune will overtake you sooner 
or later, for these infractions of his natural laws. 

I desire to hear from you on this subject before addressing 
myself to the public authorities, which I shall do, if unheeded 
by you ; but I trust that this appeal will obtain a share of that 
mercy and pity which you yourself will one day ask of your 
Maker. 

Yours, etc., 

Henry Bekgh, President. 



The following is my answer : 

It is an apparent truth that the nature of death, and the feel- 
ing at the hour of death, at the time when body and soul are 
separated, are unknown to all living beings. For, since no 
living being is subject to two or more different kinds of death, 
it cannot possibly find out and tell us the difference between one 
kind of death and the other. Nor has yet any living being come 
back after its death to describe to us the particulars of death, for 
the mouth of all beings is sealed forever as soon as they are dead. 
Still our Rabbins said: There are 903 different kinds of death, 
and. they relied on the Biblical verse (Psalms lxviii. 20) : 
" And unto God the Lord belong the issues from death ; " since 
the Hebrew term for issues, " Tozaoth" amounts to 903, if we 
take the letters of the word " Tozaoth " as figures. 

They also described the most painful and most painless kinds 
of death. They said that, in the case of the most painful kind 
of death, the soul departs from the body with the same difficulty 
with which wool is taken out from thorns ; but in the easiest 
kind of death, body and soul part with the same ease with which 
a hair is drawn out of milk. 

In the quoted 68th Psalm the severest or most painful manner 
of death is described, and it is said that the Lord's enemies are 
chastised and killed by it. The words of the Psalmist run in 
this way : " Surely God shall strike the head of His enemies." 
The Psalmist also describes us the particular place of the head 
where He strikes them, so that death will be more painful, and 
he says : " On the skull," where the hair is parted, He strikes the 
head of him who walks in his transgressions. This is, therefore, 



11 

the severest kind of death. And yet this is the very spot of 
the head where they strike the animal, in order to kill it and 
prepare it for human food. And we can clearly see from this, 
that death, produced by blows inflicted on the head, is neither 
the easiest kind of death for the animal that is killed, nor does 
it produce wholesome food, as I shall show yet more explicitly. 
Likewise I shall show, by clear and cogent proofs, that the 
Shechitah, and the Shechitah alone, is the fittest and easiest 
death ; for by the violence of the struggle and spasm of the 
members that take place at the time of the death of an animal, 
we can judge of the high degree of the pain and agony which 
the body and its limbs suffer at the hour of death. 

But, in the first place, we must describe the different parts 
and members of the animal, which, through their being united, 
and as long as they are united, constitute the living animal. 
It is necessary for ns to know that every animal, when its 
members have been united and inclosed by muscles and skin, 
consists of two distinct bodies — the interior and exterior body. 
Through their being united in some places, they become one 
body and spirit. The exterior body is formed of the head, 
hands or forefeet, feet or hindfeet, all members, sinews, muscles, 
bones, and the whole structure, which is covered by the skin. 
They are all closely connected and united. The interior body 
consists of the heart, intestines, and the organs that are con- 
nected with them ; as the liver, spleen, and kidneys. They lie 
in the body just as if they were lying in a vessel, and they are 
not closely united with the exterior body. For there is only a 
slight connection of the windpipe and gullet with the jaw. 
Still, slight as this connection is, animal life depends on it, 
wherefore it must be guarded with the utmost care. The con- 
nection of the other organs is effected only by the blood-vessels 
that extend from the heart into the body. For the heart is the 
source of the veins and arteries, and the fountain of the blood. 
For the exterior body, the Almighty created one especial mem- 
ber that must be guarded very carefully ; it is the brain. Its 
chief seat is in the skull, and it extends over the whole spine. 
The skull and the spine inclose it like a wall, to protect it from 
every injury, and it is, indeed, in great need of that protection. 
It is the brain that gives strength to all parts and members of 
the body, and keeps them together. If the brain is removed 
from its proper place, all limbs are shaken and lose their strength. 



12 

The animal cannot live then any longer. The brain itself is 
not united with the exterior body by a strong connection, as is 
the case with the other members ; but only through the veins 
of the heart that extend over all parts of the body and its mem- 
bers, and ramify into myriads of capillaries. They are united 
with the brain by its membrane that surrounds it, and they 
empty into the openings of that membrane, in order to convey 
nourishment (that is, blood) into the brain. When that mem- 
brane is peeled off the brain and the spinal cord, the former 
remains as a clear, shining substance. This substance gives 
strength to all members, imparts feeling to all parts of the body, 
and is called the head. It rules and governs as the king of a 
country, or the father of a family. 

For the intestines, that form the inner body, the Almighty 
created also one special member, the heart. It is a most 
important part of the system, and is hidden in a bag which pre- 
serves and guards it. The heart likewise has not a strong and 
firm connection with the body and intestines, as is the case with 
other members that are joined by sinews. It is only connected 
by means of veins that proceed from its right and left, and 
extend and ramify over all parts of the body and every member. 
These veins extend to the brain and the spinal cord. From 
them (the brain and spinal cord) the blood flows back to every 
part of the body, until it reaches the left chamber of the heart. 
There it is purified and receives new strength. It passes then 
over to the right chamber of the heart and resumes its circu- 
lating course. 

For the heart is the fountain of the veins, and the spring 
that furnishes the life-blood. Another function of the heart is 
the assistance it affords to all parts and members of the body 
in feeling pain. This communication between the heart and 
brain on the one side, and all parts of the body on the other, is 
kept up by the veins. For every vein is connected at one end 
with the brain and at the other with the heart. 

The lungs inhale, through the windpipe, fresh and clear air, 
to cool the heart in order that the heat of the blood in the heart 
shall not become too intense, and shall not kill the animal. 
Therefore the lungs breathe continually, either in long and 
distinct, or in short and connected breathings. For it is known 
that, if an animal is tired and fatigued, it breathes incessantly, 
because the blood in the heart has become hot bv fatigue and 



13 

is in need of being cooled off by a fresh supply of air. But if 
the animal is not fatigued, it breathes in the regular way. 

All food, both the solid and the liquid, passes through the 
oesophagus into the rumen, from there into the stomach. In it 
the food is digested by the assistance of the liver, and is decom- 
posed into blood, nutrieious matter, and fat. But the refuse is 
driven out through the intestines. The blood first enters the 
heart ; but the food, the sinews. In this way the animal is nour- 
ished. 

The brain has two cavities in which the live senses: 
feeling, smell, hearing, taste, and seeing have their seat. But 
these five senses are external and limited, because they can 
only be affected by such things as really exist. But the power 
of imagination is unlimited. It has a wider scope than the five 
senses, and may have for its object just as well a thing which 
is not in existence, as one which is in existence, or just as well 
an impossible thing as one which is possible. 

The power of imagination has also its seat in the head and 
brain. The brain communicates its thoughts immediately to 
the heart, to investigate and examine them. And since the 
heart has two counsellors, and is gifted with reason, it examines 
quite closely and clearly as to the correctness of anything. 
Therefore the wise king said : " I gave my heart," " I said to 
my heart," "I said in my heart," and many similar phrases 
which all allude to the heart. 

The heart has also two cavities: a large one on the right, and 
a small one on the left. In the right cavity it receives the blood 
from the food which has been digested by the assistance of the 
liver. Itsends forth theblood into the whole body and into every 
member, until it reaches the brain and spinal cord. From 
there the blood flows back through all the parts of the body, 
until it arrives at the left cavity of the heart. There the 
blood is renewed and flows back again into the right cavity and 
resumes its circulating course again. The two cavities of the 
heart are connected with the cavities of the brain where the five 
senses have their seat. 

But imagination originates in the brain ; it has no limits and 
cares not for the laws of Nature. The heart only sets bounds to 
it. But as far as feeling is concerned, the heart and brain are 
equally affected, since feeling arises from pressure of the veins, 
and these are connected at their two ends with the brain and 



14 

4 

the heart. Therefore heart and brain feel simultaneously, in 
order that they may preserve and guard the animal's life. 
For through the veins the feeling of pain is conveyed to the 
heart and brain, as Scripture says (Isaiah i. 5): u The whole head 
is sick, and the whole heart faint." 

Now, wounds and hurts generally affect the members of the 
exterior body, but diseases of the system have their seat in 
parts of the inner body, as in the heart and the intestines. 
Wherefore every sudden death and the disease of fits arise only 
from inner members, as the heart, intestines, brain, and through 
the deterioration of the blood that has been brought on by some 
cause or accident. 

Although the inner members have no blood, still the heart 
is the source and origin of the blood, and as soon as the fountain 
is spoiled and corrupt, everything becomes corrupt, and sickness 
sets in. For as soon as the blood has become bad, it immedi- 
ately kills the animal. Wherefore sudden death, caused by 
sickness of the heart or brain, is called in German " Schlag " 
(stroke, apoplexy, or paralysis), as " stroke of the heart " 
(Herzschlag) or "stroke of the brain " (Gehirnschlag). These 
diseases have been called so, because they attack and kill 
instantaneously, just as a man strikes another man and kills him. 

From the intestines comes, on the other hand, the sickness 
called "convulsions" or "cramps," which is one of the most 
dangerous diseases. 

~No sickness like any of those mentioned attacks the members 
of the external body. Even if they are broken or cut, instan- 
taneous death does not ensue. . 

And now, dear reader, I am not one of the great writers 
who know how to present their thoughts and ideas in such a 
clear and comprehensive way, that the reader cannot but 
clearly and fully understand what they intended to say. I 
therefore beg the dear reader that he may take pains to com- 
prehend the true meaning of my words. He then will find the 
right and true way, and he will see that the laws of the Jewish 
religion for the Shechitah show God's kindness and mercy 
towards his creatures. For He created all beings in His great 
mercy, and owing to His endless kindness He ordained to select 
for them an easy and calm death, in order to alleviate the pain 
of the animal, as well as to make the meat of the killed animal 
more wholesome and palatable. 



15 

For God created all creatures for His own glory, and He 
created them on the condition that they should become the 
food of man, His noblest creature, and that they should die 
only in the way He ordained, which is the easiest death, as I 
shall explain. And this way of killing is the best for both, 
viz., for the animal that is killed, and for man that consumes 
its flesh. 

Every way of killing the animal, that inflicts great pain on 
it, although it brings on instantaneous death, spoils and deteri- 
orates the blood ; and although death ensue very quickly, still 
it is injurious for the consumer, and therefore detrimental to 
both animal and man. 

But the way of killing that brings on an easy death without 
much pain ought to be chosen for killing the animal, in order 
to obtain its flesh for the food of man. 

For the illustration of what I said, and in order to prove 
that what I said is correct, I shall offer eight instances of 
increasing and of lessening pain. 

1st. If a man cuts into his flesh, even deeply, but cuts 
quickly and only once, he does not feel so much pain as if he 
cuts into it only a little, and afterwards cuts again into the old 
cut, although the two cuts do not form as large and deep a cut 
as the one that was produced by cutting once, but very quickly. 
The reason of this is, because cutting into an old cut causes 
greater pain than cutting once quickly into sound flesh. 

2d. Cutting with a knife to and fro, without pressing the 
knife downward, does not cause so much pain as if one presses 
the knife downward and does not move it to and fro. For the 
pain caused by pressing the knife downward produces heat and 
inflammation in the wound. 

3d. A cut inflicted by a healthy, agile man does not produce 
as much pain as the cut of a drunken or old man, or of one 
whose hands tremble or are heavy. 

4th. To pierce a knife into sound flesh, and then cut the flesh 
of the wound, is more painful than a mere cut, because piercing 
and cutting are two different kinds of pain. 

5th. Cutting with a knife that has an indentation or notch 
causes very severe pain, and is very poisonous and dangerous. 
But a cut with a sharp, smooth knife does not produce so much 
pain, is not poisonous and dangerous, snd if it can be healed, 
heals quickly. 



16 

6th. To tear loose a part of the flesh causes greater pain 
than if it is cut off by a knife. It does not heal so quickly 
either. All this is evident. 

7th. If, immediately alter inflicting a cut, warm water of the 
temperature of the blood is applied to the wound, pain ceases, 
and the blood flows without interruption. But if the wound is 
washed out with cold water, the flow of the blood is stopped, 
and severe pain is felt, just as the pricking of pins. 

8th. It' a member has been cut off the body, the body does 
not feel any pain any longer through that member, and as soon 
as the wound is healed, the member that has been cut off never 
causes any pain. But if a member has been destroyed by sick- 
ness, it causes pain even after the member h:is been fully 
destroyed, just as if it were yet connected with the body. For 
instance, it' the disease had its seat in the toes, and the disease 
destroyed the whole foot, still, if any event takes place which 
would affect that sickness, as, for instance, rainy weather or a 
snowfall, pain of the toes is felt, just as if they were yet con- 
nected with the body, and had yet life in them. For the veins 
of the affected member that convey sensibility to the heart and 
brain have also been affected by that incurable disease. But 
these remained in their old place. Therefore, every circum- 
stance that aggravates the disease is felt by the sick person or 
animal, even after the diseased member has been separated 
from the body, as is well known to physicians. 

Now, kind reader, remember everything well I have said 
here and do not forget it. 

See furthermore. As soon as the windpipe and oesophagus 
are cut apart in the middle of the throat, both bodies are sep- 
arated from one another; viz., the external body with the brain 
is by itself, and the internal body, viz., the intestines and the 
heart, is likewise by itself, and they do not impart either 
blood or food or perception to one another any more. Nor 
has either the least influence any more on the other, to impart 
any pain or sickness by the deterioration of the blood, because 
the blood pours down to the ground in good color and sound 
state. And as soon as the windpipe and cesophngus are cut, 
the intestines lie in the external body as in any other ves- 
sel, because there is no connection between them any longer. 
Although they are connected yet in the anus, by which excre- 
ment is expelled, still this is not connection enough to bring on 



17 

any disease, as this is known to physicians and as we have 
explained. 

The lungs inhale pure air through the windpipe, also after 
Shechitah, as in the sound state of the animal, and fan the heart 
as long as the animal struggles in the agonies of death, in order 
to cool the heart. In this way, the heat of the blood does not 
become too intense, and the blood continully decreases by flow- 
ing to the ground until the animal dies by losing its life, that 
is its blood, entirely, for the blood is the life. 

Nor can the veins in the other members, that have not been 
separated by the Shechitah, receive any more blood, because 
the circulation of the blood has been stopped by the cutting of 
the windpipe, gullet, and arteries of the throat, and the blood 
pours down to the ground on both sides of the severed parts, 
viz., the windpipe, gullet, and arteries. 

The skilful operation in the act of Shechitah, according to the 
Israelitish law, depends on two conditions : on the fitness of 
the Shochet (the man who performs the Shechitah), and on 
that of the knife. By Shochet we mean a careful and active or 
brisk performer. But one who is drunk, or whose hands 
tremble, who is weak, who is not well versed in the laws of 
Shechitah or in the laws of examining the inner structure of 
the animal, or one who does not believe in the Mosaic and 
Israelitish law, as, for instance, one who breaks the Sabbath, 
is not called a Shochet, but his name is "Nabal," miscreant, and 
an animal killed by such a man is called "Nebelah" or "dead 
of itself." But no Israelite is allowed to eat a Nebelah, as the 
Bible says : " Ye shall not eat any Nebelah" or anything that 
dieth of itself. (Deut. xiv. 21.) Although such an animal is 
not a Nebelah by itself, but on account of the Nabal who slaugh- 
tered it. 

The second condition of a good Shechitah is a good knife, that 
is, one of the required length, that is sharp and smooth without 
the least indentation, in order to cut with it the windpipe and 
the oesophagus in the middle of the throat without stopping 
and without pressing down the knife in the least, in full accord- 
ance with all the laws that pertain to Shechitah. In this way 
the two bodies of the animal are separated from one another 
in the easiest and best manner. All the other auxiliaries, in- 
tended to alleviate the suffering and pain after the act of Shechi- 
tah until the moment of death, come of themselves. As soon as 



18 

the windpipe and gullet are cut, the arteries instantaneously 
pour out their blood around and upon the cut, on the right and 
left, like water, in exactly the right temperature. In this way 
they wash out the wound, and surely pain ceases immediately. 

Another common means of alleviating the pain of a wound 
is also found in the throat. I mean the breathing over the 
the place of a wound. For it is customary, if a man has an 
inflamed wound, that he breathes over the place of the wound 
and the inflammation, to mitigate the pain, and momentary relief 
is obtained in this way. But Shechitah offers this very remedy. 
For the windpipe constantly exhales its breath over the cut to 
allay pain, and undoubtedly pain ceases for the moment. (And 
that is a full proof that the Creator from the very beginning or- 
dained that every clean animal should be subject to Shechitah, 
and that Shechitah should be performed on the throat, because 
there is no other place so fit for a comparatively painless She- 
chitah as the throat. For in the throat the auxiliaries that are 
needed to alleviate the pain present themselves spontaneously. 
But that is not the case with any other part of the body.) 

And from the very beginning, when God created his crea- 
tures and ordained that animals should serve for human food, 
he commanded the Israelites to alleviate the pains and suffer- 
ings of animals by killing them in the kind way of Shechitah. 

As soon as the operation of Shechitah has been performed 
and the blood flows, pain ceases, because there is nothing left 
to receive or communicate the pain. For the head and body 
are separated from the intestines and the heart, and the blood 
is flowing out to the ground. Nor exists there any longer any 
communication of feeling between the two bodies, that any pain 
should be conducted from one body to the other. 

The lungs continually inhale pure and fresh air and cool the 
heart just as in lifetime, and all pain ceases. And when the 
animal dies, the flesh remains sound and clean, pure and good 
for food. But by any cut inflicted farther up or down than 
the windpipe or gullet, or in any place where the windpipe 
and gullet have not been touched, the two bodies have not 
been separated and therefore remain one body in every respect. 
They communicate pain to one another; their blood degener- 
ates by their mutual influence ; and they receive from one 
another any sickness or injury (like cholera or paralysis). 

So it is also with the five rules that make the Shechitah mi- 



19 

lawful, as : if the Shochet separated the windpipe or gullet by 
pressing on them with the knife, or if he killed with a knife 
that has a notch, or if he put the knife underneath the wind- 
pipe or gullet, or if he tore loose the windpipe or the gullet, 
or if the Shochet is drunk or if his hands tremble. From all 
such Shechitoth (ways of killing) it is forbidden to eat, because 
they all are injurious to the animal, and all tlfese defects took 
place when the two bodies were still united and therefore still 
one body. 

Although those defects, as for instance if he paused during the 
Shechitah, or if he used a knife that had a notch, may have 
had influence on the Shechitah only during the duration of one 
second, still their influence is injurious to the blood of the 
whole body and all the members, as we see it manifested when 
blows that reach the brain are dealt on the head of the animal. 
Instantly those blows affect the whole body with the quickness 
of lightning, the members and sinews are bent, they are seized 
by tits, the blood becomes black like pitch, and surely the ani- 
mal dies from nothing else but cholera and apoplexy. Such 
meat is not clean and fit to be eaten, and such a way of killing 
is injurious both to man and beast, as I shall yet explain. All 
this is very plain to men of understanding, and lovers of truth 
will comprehend that, as long as the living animal forms one 
body, it is affected by every evil influence and exposed to* every 
accident, and if that evil influence or that accident should 
last even only one second, still the animal will suffer from it 
and will die of a hard death, and then the flesh of the animal is 
dangerous to its consumers. But when the bodies have been 
separated, neither can benefit or injure the other any longer, 
for all communication between them has ceased. 

Let us now describe the manner of death that ensues from 
blows inflicted on the brain. This way of killing is said to ac- 
celerate the death of the animal. But we see the terrible effect 
it has on the poor animal ; just as if it were struck by thunderbolts 
and flashes of lightning. The butcher comes with his axe in 
his hand, and strikes the head of the poor animal, not once, but 
many times. For it is not possible to hit, at one blow, the exact 
place where a blow kills the animal instantly. Wherefore the 
butcher strikes the animal many times, until he breaks the skull 
and tears the brain. (But do not forget that, although every 
blow on the head, inflicted with the intention to kill the animal, 



20 

may. be considered like sure half death, still the animal does not 
fully die before the brain is torn or destroyed. And even if 
the butcher deals forty blows on the head of the animal and 
goes on striking it, he only makes the animal sick, but he will 
not kill it, until he tears the brain.) And now, kind reader, see 
with your own eyes and judge with your own reason, and you 
will be convinced that there cannot be a more painful and cruel 
death than that which ensues from blows dealt on the head. 
For, at the very moment that the skull is broken by a blow, 
terror and' trembling seize the whole body, all the members, 
and every vein; and all the blood and every member and every 
vein are attacked by cramps. In consequence of which, all the 
members instantly get crooked and bent. Can we think of any 
more painful or more sickening kind of death ? Must our heart 
not be filled with compassion on seeing such suffering ? But 
know also, that as long as the anjmal is seized by cramps and 
its members are bent, it still is alive. But it suffers the most 
terrible, indescribable pain ; the process of breathing ceases 
immediately and the excrements come out through the nostrils. 
All this being the case, let physicians tell us if such an animal 
dies in immediate consequence of the blows it received, or if it 
does not die of two very malignant diseases : of cholera and 
apoplexy, which have been brought on by the blows and which 
end the animal's life by cramps. The proof of our assertion is, 
that if the region of the heart of such an animal is cut, blood 
flows out, black like pitch and putrid, as is the case with animals 
that die by cholera or apoplexy, without any blows having been 
inflicted on the head, but only by the mere disease. For the 
cramps, of which everybody is afraid, do not leave the animal, 
until it is fully dead. God protect us from those diseases— of 
apoplexy and cramps, and from eating flesh of an animal that 
was sick of such diseases.* 

But as long as the animal is attacked by those two diseases 

* This orar explanation may also account for the extraordinary fact, which 
often repeated itself in the history of the middle ages, and which was the cause of 
many persecutions, expulsions, and murders of Israelites. I mean the strange 
fact, that often, when pestilence raged and killed hundreds and thousands of 
human beings, very few Israelites fell as victims to the scourge. The Christians, 
who could not find any good reason for this startling anomaly, accused the 
Israelites of having thrown poison into the wells which furnished drinking 
water to the communities, and committed the excesses and cruelties just men- 
tioned. 



21 

(cholera and cramps), life is not extinct, although the animal lies 
motionless. The cause of that want of motion of the animal is, 
that the pain from which the animal suffers, when it is attacked 
by those two diseases, in consequence of blows dealt on its head, 
is so severe, that we cannot imagine any pain whatever that 
equals it in intensity. And how could we think of any pain 
equally violent and annihilating ? Has not the brain, the seat 
of all life, been hammered down and destroyed, and has not the 
heart also been consumed by fire through the decomposition of its 
blood, called in German, Schwarzer Brand, black mortification? 
Woe to him who eats of such meat, viz., of meat of an animal 
that has been killed by apoplexy and cholera. But we repeat 
it : the animal dies not directly by the blows dealt on its head, 
but by the two severe diseases, cholera and apoplexy, brought 
on by those blows. On this very account, the flesh of the ani- 
mal has certainly become diseased, because blood has been left 
in it impregnated by those diseases. For there is no difference 
whether death ensues in consequence of blows dealt on the head, 
which surely brought on those two diseases of apoplexy and 
cramps ; or if those diseases came of themselves, without any 
blows, and killed the animal. 

For the correctness of this assertion, we have the following 
proofs : 

1. The blood becomes dark like pitch and rotten, in both ways 
of death, that is, both if the animal is struck by man with an 
axe, or if severe sickness brings on such a state. 

2. Cramps set in, as it is the case with cholera. 

3. The animal ceases to breathe. 

4. All this is different with Shechitah. For no such fearful 
and terrible sights are produced by Shechitah. For as soon as 
the windpipe and gullet are cut, the blood pours over the cut 
and pain ceases. The blood, which is life, departs gradually, 
and when it has entirely departed, the animal dies, not by 
sickness, but because the essential of life, blood, is wanting. 

The flesh of an animal that died by being struck on the head 
is also heavier than the flesh of an animal killed by Shechitah. 
For in the former case the blood has been absorbed by the 
members. But the soul, viz., the blood, must not be eaten with 
the flesh. 

5. The meat of an animal killed by blows putrefies, in hot 
weather, faster than the meat of an animal that has been killed 



22 

by Shechitah, because the rotten and black blood has been 
absorbed by the meat. 

Sometimes coagulated blood is found on the ribs of an ani- 
mal killed by blows, inside, near the spine, which cannot be 
removed by washing. 

By all this it is easy to see the difference between an animal 
killed by Shechitah and one killed by blows. The meat of the 
latter animal is not clean, and is unfit food for a good man of 
pure thought, as I shall explain still more explicitly. Maimo- 
nides also writes : " It lies in the nature of blood to produce 
cruel and detestable habits in those that eat it. The system 
acquires those habits in a way that they will also be inherited 
by the descendants of the person who consumes the blood. " 

But Gentiles do not kill all animals by blows on the head. 
For sheep and calves are killed by piercing. Why are now, 
we ask, small animals, as sheep and calves, different from large 
animals, as oxen and cows ? Why are blows preferable for large 
animals, and why is piercing preferable for small animals? 

But in both ways of killing, the animal dies without its head, 
body, heart, and intestines being separated. During the entire 
struggle of death, full communication and sympathy exist 
between all these vital parts of the animal, and they all perish 
simultaneously. 

Now, dear reader, ponder over my words, and thou wilt 
find they are correct and true, and lovers of truth will approve 
of them. Thou wilt find that the ordinances for Shechitah are 
a divine institution, and that God's mercy extends unto all his 
creatures, even to animals destined for the food of man. 
Thou wilt also see that Shechitah is the best and most prefer- 
able way of killing and of preparing meat for food, without the 
least doubt, as thou wilt find in my book " Liviath Chen " which 
I am presenting here to thee. 

To sra^ T k ip the foregoing, I say : 

We have seen Zli&k neither striking on the heau nor Shechi- 
tah kills an animal. But by blows a disease is brought ci* 
that kills the animal, and by Shechitah the bodies are separated. 
The body is not killed directly by Shechitah, but a gate is 
opened for the arteries and veins to let the life-blood flow 
out, so that the flesh is left without life. But as long as the 
struggles of death last, the animal is considered to be alive, 
according to Jewish law. 



23 

Let us now consider the question which high-minded and 
high-standing Gentiles asked. They asked that question from 
pure motives, viz., to promote the cause of humanity as far as 
possible, and not for the purpose of annoying the Israelites. 

The interrogators of that question are members of the Society 
for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and they prosecute any one 
and every one whom they apprehend in having committed any 
cruel act towards an animal. If the person accused is convict- 
ed by the court, he is punished, in order to prevent him and 
others from acting so cruelly in future. 

The same question about the Shechitah has also been asked 
in other countries, and only by making the greatest efforts the 
Israelites succeeded in inducing the 'authorities to rely on the 
assurance of medical experts, who said that Shechitah is not 
6uch a painful and terrible death after all. In this way She- 
chitah has been tolerated, but has by no means been considered 
preferable to all other modes of killing. 

But the Author Sforno is fully correct when he says that 
direct proofs for the necessity of Shechitah have to be offered 
by the Israelites, For why should the Gentiles say that Jew- 
ish customs are cruel, and Jewish laws ought to be abolished ? 
But it is impossible to do away with Shechitah entirely, 
because many thousands and myriads of Israelites would prefer 
death to defiling their body and soul by eating meat of animals 
not killed in the Jewish way. And since the Israelites are a 
stubborn people, it is best to tolerate their custom and rather 
allow the animals to be killed in the Jewish way, although 
the animals suffer more pain in this way, than to be the cause 
of the death of many Israelites. Gentiles further say, Shechi- 
tah ought to be tolerated so much the more, since physicians 
say that Shechitah is not such a painful and cruel death after all. 

But this kindness of the Gentiles is not creditable to the 
Israelites. For Israelites ought to make Gentiles acquainted 
with the essence and nature of Shechitah. 

The Torah already enjoins on us (Dent. iv. 6): " And you shall 
observe and do (it) ; for it is your wisdom and understanding in 
the eyes of the nations." The meaning of this biblical verse is : 
If you observe a divine command quite strictly and closely in 
all its particulars, you will know how to refute all objections 
that can be raised against that divine command, and you will be 
able to give good reasons for its observation. 



24 

But who can be expected to understand and explain all par 
ticulars of Shechitah more thoroughly than the Shochet himself ? 

I have been now officiating as Shochet over thirty years. I 
have had great experience in my profession, have taught many 
pupils the art of Shechitah, and have taken pains to investigate 
every matter as closely as possible. And I am fully convinced 
that the way of killing practised by non-Israelitish butchers is 
extremely cruel and painful, far more so than Shechitah. And 
if we look at the terrible struggle and the contortion of an 
animal that dies in the cruel way of having blows dealt on its 
head, and compare this way of dying with Shechitah, we perceive 
and comprehend how exalted is the divine command which ordered 
Shechitah. For by Shechitah life departs and death ensues 
without pain. All the signs which I described above prove 
also that Shechitah prepares and purifies the meat in such a way 
that it can be eaten without the least danger. 

Gentiles ought also to observe the command of Shechitah, 
and wise men and lovers of truth ought to remind their children 
not to eat of any animal that has not been killed by Shechitah, 
if the Israel itish religion prescribes Shechitah for such an ani- 
mal. But as soon as the meat is allowed to be eaten by the 
Israelite, it is also allowed to Gentiles. They may then eat of it 
and praise the Lord and Israel, his people, and they will say : 
(Deut. iv. 6 and 8) : " Surely this great people is a wise and in- 
telligent people, which has just statutes and judgments like all 
this law." 

The Almighty, blessed be he, who has created all the inhabit- 
ants of the world, who loves all his creatures and delights in 
the prosperity of the world, desires the Gentiles also to enjoy 
future life, as I shall explain yet more explicitly. Therefore 
He commanded us to try to understand the reason of the divine 
commands, so that we shall be able to explain to Gentiles the 
reasons of the statutes and judgments, jf they will ask us about 
them. In this way the Gentiles will learn the reason of the 
divine commands and observe them. They will thus attain long 
life and improve their mind, as the Bible says: (Deut. iv. 1) : 
" And now, O Israel, obey the laws and judgments which I teach 
you to do, in order that you may live. 

Thus we see that he enjoys length of life who observes and 
performs them. And just as well as the observation of the 
divine commands secures long life, just so it removes all pain 



25 

and sickness and everything that shortens man's life, for the 
reason that it is forbidden. 

The reason why the Israelites are called a wise nation is, 
because they act for a laudable purpose, as becomes a wise, 
intelligent and great nation that tries to remove every injurious 
influence, as it is said in the Bible (Exod. xv. 26): "And it 
will be, if thou wilt diligently listen to the voice of the Lord 
thy God, wilt do what is right in his eyes, give ear to his com- 
mands and observe all his statutes, that I shall not bring over 
thee any disease which I brought over Egypt, for I am thy 
physician. " And even if the Gentiles will act in this way, not 
because God commanded it, but for some other motive, it still 
will have those beneficial consequences for them. For the 
Talmud teaches, that if any one performs a good action, even 
without pure unselfish motives at first, he will, in course of time, 
do that action from pure, disinterested motives. 

The Torah warns us also not to hate Gentiles, not even idol- 
aters, as it says (Deut. xxiii. 8) : " Thou 'shalt not abhor the Edom- 
ite, for he is thy brother. Thou shalt not abhor the Egyptian, 
for thou wast a stranger in his land." 

The Torah also warns us not to give any man any dangerous 
or injurious thing by which his life can be endangered or he 
could be hurt. So the Bible says (Exod. xxii. 30) : " Neither 
shall you eat flesh that is torn of beasts in the field. Ye shall 
cast it to the dogs." 

But in Deut. xiv. 21, the Bible admonishes us : Ye shall 
not eat of any thing that dieth of itself ; thou shalt give it 
unto the stranger that is in thy gates, that he may eat it; or 
thou mayest sell it unto an alien, for thou art a holy people 
unto the Lord thy God. 

In order to understand this apparent incongruity, that in 
Deuteronomy the Bible allows us to give forbidden meat to the 
stranger and alien, and in Exodus the Bible commands us to cast 
forbidden meat to the dogs, we must not forget that there is a 
great difference between Terephah and Nebelah. By Terephah 
is meant an animal that has been torn or mortally wounded by 
a beast of prey. Such an animal dies of poison, by which the 
attacking animal of prey infected its system. For thus the, Bible 
says: "And flesh in the field that is torn," that means, that has 
been torn or wounded by a beast of prey. Such an animal we 
must not even give to a Gentile, but cast it to the dogs, because 



26 

it is more strictly forbidden to us to eat anything injurious to 
health than to eat anything unclean on merely religious 
grounds. 

The Torah teaches us at the same time that dogs are beasts 
of prey which are not injured by the poison of another beast 
of prey, wherefore dogs may eat of an animal that has been 
wounded or slain by another. 

But in Deuteronomy the Torah speaks of JVebelah, and not 
of Terephah ; and whereas there are many animals that die a 
natural death, and are fit for human food, therefore the Torah 
commands us : Ye shall not eat any animal that has died of 
itself, even if it is fit to be eaten, as, for instance, if during 
Shechitah or the act of killing it has become unfit for the use 
of an Israelite. 

Now the meat of such an animal thou may est give to the 
stranger within thy gates that he may eat it, if he chooses. 
But to the Israelite such meat is forbidden, as the Bible says 
(Deuteronomy xiv. 2, 3) : " For thou art an holy people unto 
the Lord thy God, and the Lord hath chosen thee to be a 
peculiar people unto himself, above all the nations that are 
upon the earth. Thou shalt not eat any abominable thing," 
even if it is fit to be eaten. 

See also Aben Esra, Exodus xxii., who quotes the opinion of 
Rabbi Moses Cohen, that God forbade us to give a Gentile any- 
thing injurious to health or dangerous to the sytem, because we 
are enjoined more strictly to abstain from eating anything 
injurious to health than from eating anything forbidden by the 
statutes of the Israelitish religion. 

So the Bible forbade also the stranger to eat blood, although 
he is allowed to eat of an animal that died of itself. For in 
reference to JSfebelah (an animal that died of itself) the 
Bible says : " To the stranger that is within thy gates thou 
may est give it, that he may eat it." 

But eating blood is forbidden also to the stranger, for thus 
it says (Lev. xvii. 10) : " And any one of the house of Israel or 
of the strangers who sojourn among them, who eats any blood, I 
will even set my face against that soul that eateth blood, and 
will cut him off from among his people." 

We find the reason for this in Moreh. For Maimonides 
writes in Moreh that blood creates very cruel inclinations in 
the system, which not only become inseparable from the sys- 



27 

teni, but which will also be communicated to children and 
grandchildren. 

From all this we see that God desires the welfare of His 
creatures, that He has pity on them, and wants them to prosper 
and improve their minds by virtuous living. Compare Mai- 
monides' letter which he sent to Alexandria to the great Rabbi 
Chisdai, the Levite and Portuguese. He writes : " Concerning 
thy question about the Gentiles, thou must know that all God 
desires is a good heart. Therefore the Rabbins said : ' Pious 
Gentiles are admitted into paradise, if they acquired the neces- 
sary knowledge of the existence and properties of the Creator, 
and if they improved their minds by good habits ;' and there 
is no doubt that every one who ennobled his mind by good 
habits, and the proper knowledge of and belief in the Creator, 
blessed be He, will inherit the future world or the paradise. 
Therefore the truly wise men, our teachers, said, ' Even a 
Non-Israelite, who studies the law of Moses, our teacher, is 
equal to the High-priest.' " So Yalkut Shimeoni says : " The 
words, ' Thy priests shall put on righteousness,' allude to pious 
Gentiles." 

What we have said until now is fully sufficient to show us 
that God is a merciful Father, who has compassion on His 
creatures, and loves all men, both rich and poor. He has given 
us statutes and judgments, and any one who chooses may find 
shelter in them, and observe and perform them, in order that 
he, as well as we, may enjoy the felicity of doing what is right 
in the eyes of the Lord. 

God commanded us also to make known and explain the 
statutes and judgments of the Lord to all inquirers, even if they 
should observe them for some other reason than the one of 
obeying the Lord's command, in order that they also may enjoy 
all the good that follows from the observation of the commands 
of the Lord. 

We owe this duty of explaining the Lord's commands so 
much the more to the nations of the present day, among whom 
we live, who are full of wisdom and knowledge, and are kindly 
disposed towards us with all their heart and soul. Therefore it 
is our duty to answer their questions correctly, and give them 
the desired information, in order that they also will avoid 
every injurious thing, and will save their body and soul, and 
the bodies and souls of their children after them, so that their 



28 

good inclinations and propensities will not be marred by any 
bad influence. 

For we find that in many ways parents cause their children 
to become depraved ; but in all these cases, not only the per- 
petrators of the bad actions ought to be punished, but also they 
who caused them to act in their bad way ought to be held 
accountable. And only in a few rare cases does it occur that 
children leave the ways of their wicked parents, and become 
good and virtuous. But if wicked parents use their influence 
with their children, so that the latter imitate the former's ways, 
no improvement of the children can be expected by any means. 

In all these cases, Providence will punish parents for their 
injurious influence on their children, although no human judge 
can exercise his authority and punish such an offence. 

For all these reasons I think that if any Israelite is requested 
to explain any topic of the holy law, and he is able to do so and 
can give a good reason for the existence of that law, it is his 
sacred duty to give the inquirer all information and instruction 
he is able to give. Thus the Bible says (Deut. xxxi. 19) : " Put 
it in their mouth," so that the matter will be quite plain and 
clear to them. By this injunction, too, we can see the mercy 
of the Lord toward His creatures. 

Now let us investigate the four kingdoms of natural bodies, 
their nourishment, and the accidents to which they are sub- 
ject ; from the different kinds of plants and trees up to the 
most elevated of all creatures — man. 

Thy works are wonderful, O Lord ! Thy thoughts are very 
deep. Thou hast composed Thy world of four different king- 
doms, of minerals, plants, animals, and man. 

G-od furnishes food for all these beings which Re has created 
and which He supports by His goodness, kindness, and mercy, 
and He furnishes that food according to the nature and consti- 
tution of these creatures, may they be plants, animals, or man. 

That being is the strongest and healthiest that finds its food 
ready at all times, without being in need of preparing that food 
at all. Such a being is not very apt to suffer from external 
influences. But less strong is that being whose food needs 
preparation. And the more preparation its food needs, the 
weaker the being is, and such a being is exposed to external 
influences, and is injured by them if it is not very careful. 

For instance, earth, water, and air are the nourishment of 



29 

plants and trees, and they produce taste and odor in them 
But these trees often are extraordinarily high, as, for instance, 
the proud cedar ; they are strong and powerful, they yield their 
fruit in due season, and their years are almost numberless. 
Very seldom any accident befalls them, and rarely do they 
suffer any change. The reason is, these trees find their food 
always ready and prepared, and they do not suffer any injury, 
as long as their nourishment does not deteriorate and is not 
changed. 

This is also the case with all plants of the field. As long as 
their food does not undergo any change, they retain their former 
strength. 

Higher in the order of natural beings than plants are ani 
mals. There is a great variety of these latter, and they are in 
need of many different kinds of food. 

Some kinds of animals find their food ready for them at all 
times, others do not find it ready, since it needs preparation. 

But every species of animals whose food needs preparation 
is far more exposed to the influence of accidents, and is far 
more likely to be injured, than those species of animals that 
find their food ready for them without its being in need of 
much preparation. 

Some species of animals live on vegetables, and eat them just 
as they find them ; the food of other species must be prepared ; 
some again subsist on other animals for their food. And the 
Creator has endowed every species of animals with the proper 
instinct that enables it to know and to prepare its right food, 
just as it is fit for its system, and just as its constitution 
demands it. 

For instance, the serpent has been cursed that it has to eat 
dust all the days of its life, or in other words, that its food 
tastes like earth. Therefore the Creator has supplied it with 
poison that burns everything to earth, so that it tastes like 
earth. For this reason it finds its food ready and prepared at 
all times. 

Fishes have been blessed with water which is always ready 
for them and in which they live. 

The hog's nature is that everything serves for its food. And 
by the bad smell in its mouth and by its crooked teeth it causes 
the food to rot. In this way, if any poison is found in its 
food, it is neutralized and becomes harmless. Therefore every 



30 

kind of food is fit for the hog, with the exception of powerful 
mortal poisons which will also kill it. But any poisonous 
matter that is found in herbs or any decayed food is all digested 
in its mouth and by its tongue and crooked teeth that cause 
the food to putrefy. It also has a stomach that receives every- 
thing. Wherefore our Rabbins say (Tract Sabbath 77, 2): 
"Three animals gain strength by becoming old: the snake, the 
fish, and the hog." Our Eabbins further said (Tract Sabbath 
77, 2) : " There is no animal richer than the hog," because it can 
live on any kind of food. 

The atmosphere that surrounds us very often varies. Some- 
times it is pure and clear, and sometimes it is thick, heavy, and 
impure. Now clear, pure air is advantageous to man. In such 
air man feels well and comfortable, and it affords him pleasure 
to inhale it. 

But it is just the contrary with pigs. If the air is pure, pigs 
hunt up dung-hills to rest there. On the other hand, on a 
rainy day, when the air is moist and impure, pigs run about 
cheerful, but man feels heaviness in his system and has a desire 
of lying down, as we all know. The reason of this is, because 
man and hog subsist on all kinds of food, which are fit to be 
eaten. But while human food requires cleanness in its prepara- 
tion, in order to be fit to be eaten, the hog wants putrid food 
and likes to lie in dunghills. If any poisonous matter is 
contained in the air, it kills both man and hog. 

Now let us examine the two classes of animals that live on 
vegetables and not on flesh, or that are herbivorous and not 
carnivorous, viz., those that chew the cud and have a divided 
hoof. 

There are two classes of them. The first class includes 
domestic animals that have been trained by man, and the 
second class, wild animals that have not been subdued under 
the rule of man. They roam about free in fields and deserts, 
where no man lives, and they live on herbs and grass of the 
field which are both pleasant and wholesome to them. They 
enjoy the best health, as for instance, the swift hind, the fleet 
stag. They obtain old age without being troubled much by 
sickness or accident, for these very seldom befall them. 

But the other class has been subdued by man, viz., the 
domestic animals. They are ruled by man, and are made to 
work in the field or to carry burdens just according to the 



31 

pleasure of their master. They also look up to their master to 
have all their wants satisfied by him. For it is he who cares 
for their eating and drinking ; it is he who secures to them a 
place where they can rest and sleep. 

These domestic animals are subject to many bad diseases and 
accidents which visit and often destroy them. The reason for 
this is : domestic animals are fed by man even against their will. 
The animal has not its own choice in the selection of its food, 
and it often has to eat what is not pleasant or wholesome to it. 
Sometimes it eats much, sometimes little ; sometimes it 
can rest, at other times it has to walk or to run, although tired 
and faint. In this way the system of these animals is ruined. 
Therefore they fall an easy prey to the inclemency of the wea- 
ther and other injurious influences, and therefore a thousand 
times more domestic than wild animals die of sickness. 

We shall now examine those animals that walk on their 
paws, and attack and devour their prey alive, so as to use it for 
food. But it is greatly astonishing that the flesh of an animal 
devoured in this way should not ruin the system of the 
devouring animal, so that it is suffocated and dies, while the 
flesh of the devoured animal is still between the devourer's 
teeth. For it is universally known that God has endowed every 
animal, from its birth, with the sense of shielding itself against 
death, and of fleeing from danger. It also knows the animals 
that tear and lacerate it, and recognizes them from afar. It is 
then in the very greatest fear and agony of death. Now, in 
consequence of the deadly fear that seizes the animal, when it 
falls into the power of the enemy and destroyer, the whole sys- 
tem of the attacked animal, all its members, veins, its muscles, 
and its blood are seized by cholera. And surely those who 
eat such flesh do not escape injury. But to protect the animal 
of prey from injury, the Creator has provided it with crooked 
teeth, and with pointed and crooked claws, both full of poison. 
When now the beast of prey lacerates an animal, it throws 
poison into it, and that poison burns or consumes all the sick- 
ness which overcame the animal on account of its deadly fear 
at the time of its death. In this way the flesh of the devoured 
animal is purified again, and it not only becomes fit to be eaten, 
but it also enters the devouring animal pleasant like water, and 
it is strengthening to its bones like oil. 

Now, such meat, that is, the flesh of an animal lacerated by 



32 

an animal of prey, the Torah has forbidden us to sell or to give 
to any human being. We have to throw it before the dogs,, 
because dogs also are animals of prey, and therefore do not 
derive any injury from eating the flesh of such an animal. 
G-od rewarded dogs in this way quite appropriately. They did 
not bark at the Israelites, although it lies in the nature of dogs 
to bark in consequence of their poisonous anger that suspects 
strangers. Therefore no poison of other animals of prey 
injures them. 

We shall speak now of the food of the foremost and most 
elevated of all creatures — man. All food that is not well pre- 
pared is distasteful to him, and endangers his health and life 
greatly. 

I shall first describe that human food which is taken from 
the vegetable kingdom. Here man has to perform a great 
many labors before he will obtain bread that is fit for him to 
eat. He has to plough, to sow, and reap the field. He has 
then to grind the grain, to knead the flour, and bake the 
dough to bread. 

But besides the operations mentioned, there are other hard 
and difficult ones to be performed, before the grain is fit to be 
ground, and to be then turned into bread fit to be eaten by 
man. 

We must not forget that all those labors and troubles are 
essentially necessary. Without them grain or plants are 
not only not nourishing, but even greatly endangering human 
health and life. For many severe diseases arise from eating 
bread, if the grain, out of which it has been made, has not 
been cleaned, because in this way poisonous flowers and seeds 
that are injurious to human health are mixed with the grain, 
although all other animals eat such a mixture and are nou- 
rished by it, just as if it were the greatest delicacy. 

But it is altogether different with the food of man — the fore- 
most of all creatures. He has to be very careful and cautious 
and he has to examine everything he eats very closely, as the 
wise king said (Prov. xxv. 30 and 31) : " I passed by the field of 
the slothful and by the vineyard of the man void of understanding, 
and lo, it was all grown over with thorns, and nettles had 
covered the face thereof, etc." 

The wise king is not going to describe to us the injury that 
will be caused to the field by its being allowed to be filled with 



33 

thorns and nettles ; but he is depicting to us the damaging influ- 
ence which the eating of flour, made of grain that is mixed 
with thorns and poisonous plants, entails on the health of man 
eating it. For it is extremely necessary to glean carefully out 
of grain all bitter and poisonous kernels that are mixed with it, 
or any grain which is not fully ripe. All these are injurious to 
man, although they are not hurtful and are even wholesome to 
animals. 

The Torah has enjoined on us the duty of taking care of our 
life very emphatically, as it says : " Take the utmost care of thy 
life." 

The wise king likewise lavishes the greatest praise on her who 
is careful in this respect. For after he has concluded his encomi- 
ums in all other respects and after he has said (Prov. xxxi. 10 
et seq.) : " Who can find a virtuous woman ; her price is far above 
pearls. The heart of her husband trusts safely on her. She 
bestows benefits on him." 

What for ? Because (ibid.) " She bringeth tier food from 
afar, and giveth meat to her household. She looketh well to 
the ways of her household." 

All this is the good which she has done. But not only did she 
do what is good and useful, but she also kept back everything 
that is injurious, as the wise king says (ibid.): "And she eateth 
not bread of idleness," which is not clean from thistles; for 
grain raised on the field of an idle person is very dangerous, 
because bitter grains are mixed with it, as we have said. 

And now see, although the wise king said (Eccl. vii. 28): 
"One man among a thousand have I found, but a woman among 
all those I have not found," still when the woman looks well 
after the affairs of the household, he ascribes greatness to her 
husband and attributes both to him and her many an adorning 
name, as: Virtuous woman, a woman in whom her husband 
trusts, one who does good, one who is like the merchant's ship, 
one who giveth meat to the household. 

Although it is the husband's province to care for the support 
of the family, still the wise king also gives the virtuous woman 
credit for giving meat to the household. And so he continues 
praising and glorifying the virtuous woman who furnishes her 
family with good meat, that he says at last (ibid.) : " But thou 
excellest them all." 

Now, why is this extraordinary praise ? 



54 

Because it is the part of the wife to watch over the household 
and the affairs of the family. The husband or the father of the 
family does not meddle with culinary affairs. He toils and 
works out of the house to furnish the means for buying food for 
the family. But the wife or the mother of the family applies 
the money earned by the husband to buying food and drink, 
and to her the family owes its good health and its safety from 
sickness and danger by her excluding from kitchen and table 
everything injurious to health. 

All wise and experienced women will give me credit for what 
I have said, because their own reason will tell them that I have 
spoken but the truth. And when they will observe everything 
to which I have drawn their attention, they will thank me for 
having enlightened them and warned them and kept them and 
their families back from danger. In this way no harm will 
come near their tents, but all will be well, hale, and strong. 

But let us now reason and calculate with a clear mind. 

If man has to be so careful and cautious in eating plants, that 
he has to know which plants he may eat and from which he 
must stay away, and that he has also to be acquainted with the 
proper mode of preparing them, that they will not be injurious, 
but wholesome to him, how much the more is it necessary for 
him to know the proper way of preparing the flesh of animals 
for his food. For animals are endowed with sensibility, they 
have the feeling of fear or dread, of pain or ache, of grief or 
sorrow. How much the more has man to know how to prepare 
such meat, that it will not injure him. For the Creator has not 
provided man with means of destroying or neutralizing the 
poison of plants, so much the less is man allowed to eat the flesh 
of an animal that has been seized by deadly fear, when it has 
been taken to the slaughter-house. Man has no crooked teeth, 
no bent claws, and no poison in his mouth and tongue which 
could save him from the effects of the deadly fear of such an 
animal . 

This fear is less great with domestic animals that are used 
to the society of man. But animals of the forest are seized by 
deadly fear, and so much the more if they are struck on their 
head, until death ensues. Surely cholera and apoplexy unite 
to bring on the death of an animal treated in this way. And 
even a domestic animal is attacked by these two diseases if 
blows are dealt on its forehead. 



35 

We will now also illustrate the distinction mentioned in the 
Bible (Lev. xi. 47) : " And to distinguish between the unclean 
and the clean, and between the animal that is eaten and the 
animal that is not eaten." 

In order to distinguish them well and without doubt, signs 
have been handed down to us, namely : chewing the cud and 
dividing the hoof into two are signs of cleanness ; walking on its 
paws or creeping on the belly are signs of uncleanness. 

We have to know that every domestic animal and every ani- 
mal of the forest that divide the hoof and chew the cud, that are 
therefore clean animals, have no upper teeth and are compelled 
to lick the grass and herbs of the field with their tongue, in 
order to eat them. They do not bite with their teeth, as the 
horse, the mule, and ass do, but they lick and chew a little with 
the teeth of their lower jaw and swallow it into the rumen, where 
it begins to be digested. And when it has been digested there 
a little, the animal brings it up and chews it again ; it then 
swallows it a second time and in this way the animal is fed. 
The food is then fully digested in the intestines. 

The reason for this is, that every grass and herb of the field 
has a strong poisonous juice which could injure clean animals 
very easily, because their system is not so strong and their 
digestive organs are not so powerful as those of unclean animals. 
The only remedy for their weakness is, that the animal licks 
with its tongue the herbs of the field and swallows them into 
the rumen. There the poisonous juice is digested and absorbed. 
The animal then chews the cud again. In this way the cud 
turns into good food and strengthens the animal. 

It may be that God caused the poisonous juice of herbs to be 
neutralized in this way, because the animals that eat them are 
destined to become the food of man. 

The Torah is very minute and exact concerning the signs of 
clean animals. If animals lack only one of those signs of clean- 
ness, they are called unclean, although they are possessed of all 
other signs of clean animals. 

Thus the Bible says (Lev. xi. 2, 3) : " These are the beasts 
which ye may eat, among all the beasts that are on earth : 
Whatsoever parteth the hoof and is cloven-footed and cheweth 
the cud among the beasts, that may ye eat." 

Thus we see that all the signs of cleanness must be found 
united in a species of animals to make it clean. And even if 



36 

one sign of cleanness is wanting in a species, it is unclean, as it 
says (Lev. xi. 4-8) : " Nevertheless these shall ye not eat, of 
them that chew the cud or of them that divide the hoof: as the 
camel, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof, 
he is unclean to you. And the coney, because it cheweth the 
cud, but divideth not the hoof, it is unclean to you. And the 
hare, because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof; 
he is unclean to you. And the swine, though it divide the hoof 
and be cloven -footed, yet it cheweth not the cud ; it is unclean 
to you. Of their flesh ye shall not eat, etc." 

If we investigate the material difference between the unclean 
animals and the way of their taking their food and digesting it, 
and between the clean animals and their way of taking food and 
digesting it, we find that the flesh of the unclean animals is 
rugged and it is plainly seen that their life-blood is not equally 
mixed. If their blood gets hot, it often exceeds its bounds and 
gets fiercer than is wholesome for their system. Therefore the 
Creator has provided them with strong limbs. In this way 
they escape many injuries to which their fierceness exposes them. 

But unclean animals are not provided with members that 
prevent them from excesses. Even those which live on vege- 
tables lack those members. For instance : No bile is found on 
the liver of a horse or an ass, as is the case with clean animals. 
But our sages said : " The liver gets angry and the bile 
pours some liquid or juice over it, and the anger of the liver 
ceases." 

Although the function of the liver is to concoct the food, and 
the function of the bile is to instil some of its liquid into the 
food to promote its digestion, still it also allays anger. 

But the horse, the ass, and mule extract all the strong poison- 
ous juice, contained in their food, from it, as soon as they chew 
it with their teeth. 

The greatest difference exists also in the excrements of un- 
clean and clean animals, so that farmers do not find the excre- 
ments of unclean animals fit manure for every kind of ground. 

Now just as well as there is the greatest difference in the 
excrements of unclean and clean animals, just so, to be sure, 
there is a great difference in their flesh, and the flesh of unclean 
animals is surely not wholesome for the human system. 

And even if the taste of the flesh of unclean animals is pleas- 
ant, it has no good effect on the human system, just as it is the 



37 

case with honey which has a good taste and odor, and still it is 
injurious to the human system if a great quantity of it is eaten. 

There are also many poisonous matters that kill only by their 
odor. Their smell affords momentary pleasure, but if the smell 
is received into the system for a longer time, it has a mortal 
effect. So there is also a kind of roses found among flowers, 
which, as we know, have a fatal effect on any one who smells 
them very long, and still their odor is pleasant. 

Our Rabbins said likewise : 

Pork obstructs or stupefies the heart, and still the hog has 
some signs of cleanness. I know also for certain that the high- 
est members of society, as princes, abstain from pork, and it 
never is put on their table, because, as they say, it is injurious 
to the system. 

This is also the case with all unclean animals ; their flesh is 
rugged or an abomination, and it has some qualities which are 
not good for man. 

It is the sign of un cleanness which shows that the flesh of 
those animals is not wholesome. The same is the case with 
serpents which. have no feet at all. They have poison in their 
tongue that burns everything to earth. Still snakes themselves 
eat that poison without being injured by it. The lion likewise 
tears and lacerates, and has poison in his teeth and claws which 
serves for his safety, as we have said, because he burns away 
by it the matter of the disease into which the animal, attacked 
by him, has fallen in consequence of its deadly fright. We 
thus see that the lion eats true poison without being injured, 
and the same is the case with all kinds of unclean animals. 
They themselves eat their own poison, and consequently their 
flesh is fed by their poison. Their flesh is therefore, to be sure, 
an abomination for mankind, and must not be eaten by man. 

But it is altogether different with clean animals. From the 
very moment God created them, he has not put any poison into 
their mouth or their tongue. Nor have they any crooked 
teeth. Yea, they have no teeth at all in their upper jaw. But 
the Creator provided them with one safeguard that protects 
them from poisonous matter, for their tongue has a thick strong 
skin of white color, in order that it will not suffer from the 
poisonous juice of herbs. In the rumen then everything is de- 
cocted and the poisonous matter is absorbed. Clean animals 
have also been created with bile adhering to the liver, so that, 



38 

if the animal should become angry, the bile will pour out its 
liquid, and the animal will become calm. 

In this way we shall comprehend that if in any class or 
species of an animal a sign of uncleanness is found, that sign shows 
that the flesh of the whole class is an abomination. For this 
reason, the Tor ah specified classes and species of animals, as, the 
camel, the coney, the hare, the hog, because, as soon as any 
unclean sign is found, the whole class must not be eaten. 

And even in reference to clean animals, the Bible says (Lev. 
xi. 2) : " These are the animals which you may eat," and our 
Rabbins received by tradition that this verse means : An ani- 
mal that is fit to remain alive thou mayest eat, but if it is not 
fit to remain alive, thou must not eat it ; for instance, if it is so 
sick that it cannot be cured. In this way we can see how the 
Creator gave us laws for our best, to protect our life. 

I also say that my poor reason tells me, that man would 
never have found out the most appropriate place for killing 
animals, so that their flesh will be fit for human food and will 
not injure man at all, if that place had not been shown him by 
divine grace. But God, who created and formed all creatures, 
chose his people Israel and gave them his commandments. 
For He alone knows what is good for man and what His chosen 
people shall eat and prepare in a way pleasing to him, as it 
says (Deut. xii. 20 et seq.) : " Because thy soul longeth to eat 
flesh, thou mayest eat flesh, whatsoever thy soul lusteth after, 
then thou shalt kill of thy herd and thy flock, as I have com- 
manded thee, and thou shalt eat in thy gates whatsoever thy 
soul lusteth after." And there is no necessity to reflect about 
the matter, as we read in Job xxxviii. 2 : " Who is this that 
darkeneth counsel by words without knowledge ? Where wast 
thou, when I laid the foundations of the earth ? Declare, if 
thou hast understanding." For since we do not know the law 
of the creation and formation of animals, surely God has 
created them on the condition that they should be killed in 
the way He commanded us. 

Do we not also find a great difference in the four different 
ways in which criminals were put to death according to the 
dictates of the Bible and the decisions of Jewish courts ? And 
no criminal was allowed to be put to death in any other way 
but that prescribed by the Bible for his offence. So the Bible 
also says (Deut. x. 13) : " To observe the commandments of 



39 

the Lord, and His statutes which I command thee this day, for 
thy good. Behold, the heaven and the heaven of heavens are 
the Lord's thy God's." 

The meaning of this passage of the Bible is : " Surely there 
is no one found who knows, and is able to tell what occurs in . 
heaven and how and when things occur there. Still all these 
things are revealed and known to God, for nothing occurs 
without him. 

But just as it is with the heaven, so it is with the earth and 
all which it contains. God created the earth before man was 
created, as our Rabbins said (Sanhedrin 38, 1) : " If man should 
feel tempted to become proud, he can be reminded that even 
the fly was created before him." Consequently we know noth- 
ing about the creatures of the earth below either. But every- 
thing is hidden from us, as it says (Job xxxviii. 4) : " Where 
wast thou when I laid the foundation of the earth ?" But 
although all this is hidden from us, still to God it is revealed 
and known. 

Another question remains yet to be answered. For we can- 
not help asking : Has God created the whole world, in order 
that it shall be ruled by mere force ? For we see that the earth 
is full of violence. Is not, for instance, the lion desirous of 
tearing to pieces, and does not the young lion sit in secret places 
to lie in wait ? God also answered Job (Job xxxviii., xxxix. 
. et seq.) : " Wilt thou hunt the prey for the lion ? or fill the 
appetite of the young lion ? Who provideth for the raven his 
food ?" Man also commits violence, and many are the victims 
of violence of man. For is not an innumerable quantity of 
oxen, sheep, rams, calves, and birds killed every day ? Sow 
it is true, we can clearly see that these animals are destined to 
serve for human food. For were it not that in a supernatural 
way God causes the great increase of these animals, they could 
not possibly multiply in this wonderful way. For these animals, 
as, for instance, cows, generally bring forth only one young one 
every year. It is therefore quite manifest that God causes tfre 
wonderful increase of these animals in order to provide man with 
food, just as he furnishes man with other articles of food also. 

But nevertheless depriving animals of their life is an act of 
violence. Now why is this violence allowed by God to exist % 

But we know that some kinds of poisonous serpents lie down 
on the wayside when they are hungry. If then an animal 



40 

passes by them, they send forth their powerful breath against 
it. The animal is then bewildered and charmed ; it then 
begins to run before the snake in a circle, and at last runs into 
the open jaws of the snake without any fear, just as if it did 
find safety there. 

We see now that this poison or charm of the snake is bene- 
ficial to both animals, that is, to the animal that is charmed 
and devoured, because it loses its sense and has no pain ; and 
to the devouring animal, the snake, because it obtains its food 
in this way: 

We find many such kinds of snakes, which, if they stare on 
other animals, make it impossible to those animals to flee from 
them, for they possess the power of holding their victims with 
their eyes, that they cannot move from the spot, just as the load- 
stone attracts the iron, and just as if the feet of those animals 
were tied with chains. Divine wisdom ordained it in this way. 

The highest Jewish court, the Sanhedrin, acted in a similar 
way. If a culprit was taken out to be executed, they gave 
him some drug which deprived him of his senses somewhat, so 
that his grief about his death was lessened. 

Now we know with certainty that poisonous substances very 
often are very beneficial to mankind, and therefore it is proper 
that poisonous animals should feed on other animals, in order 
that the former should benefit man. For all animals have 
been created for the best of mankind, and the destiny of all 
animals is to benefit mankind, and they have been created by 
God only for that purpose. 

But we are not allowed to ask the further question : Why 
has God arranged His world in this way ? For His infinite 
wisdom ordained it so, and no human reason can fathom His 
wisdom and remain alive. 

In this way we have also to explain the biblical verses 
(Psalms cxlv. 15 et seq.) : " The eyes of all wait upon Thee, 
and Thou givest them their meat in due season. Thou open- 
est thy hand and satisfiest the desire of every living thing. 
The Lord is righteous in all His ways." 

The Psalmist's words teach us that we must not consider it 
an act of violence that one animal devours another. For the 
ways of the Lord are different from our ways, and He is right- 
eous according to His ways, and holy in all His works accord- 
ing to His ways. In His wisdom He has created the world 



41 

that it should be the way it is, and He is a truthful and merci- 
ful king, and His mercy extends to the devouring animal as 
well as to the devoured animal. 

But we hope that the prophecy of Isaiah will be fulfilled, 
which reads (Isaiah xi. 7, 9) : " And the lion will eat straw 
like the ox. They shall not hurt nor destroy. For the earth 
shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover 
the sea." And we shall pronounce the benediction of Shechi- 
tah, and eat meat according to our heart's desire. 

What we have said till now will enable 'any one who has 
been endowed with wisdom and knowledge by the divine 
Creator, to perceive the difference between death brought on 
by Shechitah and all other manners of death. 

And every one should remind the members of his family 
that they also will be careful about the precepts of Shechitah ; 
for sufficient reasons for the excellency of Shechitah have 
been given in the above. 

I shall now mention yet a conversation and an argument 
which I had with three excellent physicians about the tissues 
of the lungs that we often find extending from one part of the 
lungs to the other. 

One day three excellent physicians came to me into the 
slaughter-house and found me engaged in trying to remove such 
a tissue from the lungs of an animal. 

. I tried to remove it by repeatedly leading my fingers over it 
very gently. After I had succeeded in removing the tissue, 
I examined the place where the tissue had adhered to the 
lungs, by warm water, to find out if no hole had been made in 
the lungs, by separating the tissue from the lungs. 

Those physicians asked me what all that meant and what 
the name of the sickness was which could make the flesh of an 
animal, afflicted with it, unlawful food for Israelites. I told 
them that those tissues of the lungs were caused by inflamma- 
tion of the lungs. In most cases the inflammation has made a 
hole in the lungs. When the inflammation has ceased and the 
animal become well again, a membrane forms and closes the 
hole in the lungs, and that membrane extends from one part to 
the other part of the lungs. 

Those physicians told me I was right and the same was the 
case with man. If the lungs are inflamed or wounded, such 
tissues are formed. But as soon as those tissues are formed. 



42 

the wound is healed and the opening in the lungs is closed up 
and need not be minded any further. 

They asked me why the Jewish law required those tissues to 
he removed, and their place in the lungs to be examined, if 
no hole was left there. For even if a hole was there, there 
was no harm in it, since it had been closed, and the animal 
was enabled to live in this way. 

I asked those physicians, in return, what they prescribed to a 
man who had such a sickness, and was cured from it, and how 
they prevented a reopening of the hole by the tearing of the 
tissue that had formed itself over that hole % For of course, as 
soon as the hole gets open again, the old sickness has come 
back. 

They told me : Such a patient must be warned not to go 
out in rainy or snowy or foggy weather. He must avoid 
having cold feet. He must be very careful not to eat indiges- 
tible food, for a neglect of these rules might bring on a relapse. 

I then told them : Your own words prove the correctness of 
the Jewish law. Man, who has reason and free will, to do 
what is salutary to him, is cured by the closing of a hole in his 
lungs ; for he can and does avoid everything that might bring 
on the disease again. 

But the animal is in the power of man, and has to go 
wherever man wants it to go, and that in all kinds of weather, 
in rain or in snow, in the severest cold or in the most oppres- 
sive heat. To be sure, we cannot speak here of a cure, because 
the hole has been shut. On the contrary, the sickness exists 
yet, just as if the hole were not closed, and for this reason the 
rule is with us : 

Every tissue or membrane that has been formed in an ani- 
mal in consequence of a wound is not considered a membrane, 
the animal cannot remain alive, and is therefore terejpha or 
unfit to be eaten. 

For this reason I make an examination of the lungs, as soon 
as I observe a tissue in the lungs of an animal, in order to find 
out if a hole ever was there or not. If no hole ever was there, 
then no disease was there either, and the animal may be eaten 
by Israelites, or in other words : the animal is kasher. But if 
a hole ever was there, the animal is unfit to be eaten by Israel- 
ites, or it is terejpha. 

Those physicians then agreed with me and said I was right. 






TUB TAA 



OR, 



VINDICATION OF THE ISRAEL1TISH WAY OF 
KILLING ANIMALS, 



SHECHITAH, 



AARON ZEBI FRIEDMAN 



TRANSLATED FROM THE HEBREW. 



NEW YORK 

1876. 



¥1 



c 


( c 


C 


CC 


c 


cc 


c 


CC 


c 


ccc 



<c. c crac. 
CO c -.<mc, 

c cc c CCMCL 



: <Cccqpg£ 
o<C( ccc 
(- <cc cure 
c ^<xc<j3|E 

CcC£C<33€£, 

c.^xcciair 
c ^cam, 

C'3?S3CTC 
c <cccc«<gc; 





«L c c.« 


". «B- 




<Sd C C 


c <SC 




OC C C 


4tf 




4KI C C 


4MK 


C S- 


CC C 


4JK 


c ( c 


«ecc c 


4flCI 


C t - 


:«K_ C C 


^BC 


<C<- 




0&Z. 


- ^XT C C 


*QK* 


•Ci-'*- 


<C C C 


^■C 



c* i^^t; 




CCC: 








■ c v <r ; CC ' 


<<F 


<1CC 

ccc 


> < 




CC; C 


■(hCI;: CC 


(jg ~~ 


ccc 


1 i 






<ct. 


ccc 


i C 






..< C- '". CCT' 
.. < C ,<C<! 


r? ccc< 


c 




C ^ 


1 CP - CCT/< 


£ <<> 


c 




<C '« 


< Ci.,, c^ <i 


I ccc 


C 




- 


- ^ Cv-.' C: (< 


CT € 


c e. ■ - 


, c 






• i Ci v ■ "C \< 


■• <t 


"CC •> v 


c 




<L '* 


c O" ' C< 


"'" -C 


cc 


c 




cc 


•i <dc Cc 


I C 1 


cc :/ C 


c 




cc 


■■< c^ " cc 


r cxca 


c 




cc 

cc 
cc 

cc 


■cc - c?c 
iC |p 

rf C CC 

fVl . CC 


ccc 

" ^S : '■ ' 

CCC" 
■ <fC< ' 


< 

\ 

c 

c 
c 




rC C: , CC 

:K'_ C. . CC 


,rc 


C^ l .< 
C 
C l \ 


c 
o 
cc 
. C<-^ 




& 

£ 


UC lL CC; 


: C,c 


c 


ccc 




cc 


cc C CC 

C c cc 




C : 

. C ' : 


v c< 




t 


. C 1 




cc ' C'. CC 


'■'■C< 


_C "■' 


v. c< 




cc 


■Cm C CC 


Cc 


c : a - 


" C' 


c 


cc 


« >-<& S : ' $ 


", 'C< 


"C* a 


:=c/C 

C'C < 


<_ . 


cc 


COkJCi-. cc 


:::c< 


7 'C ,;t 


jC 


cc 


■■-. tt€C' c< 


?Ci 


^C ' 




c 


Ct 


■CfSCC^Q 


: -ccc: 


•if. *- 


<^ ! . 


c 


" Cl<C<: C 


£:" : C" 


c>= 


'' 


*"'■■' 


Ca 


r cccat; c cc 


I' «L : « 


:C 


c .. 




<\ 


'CCCT'- ::- CE 


Z/C< 


-c " 


c c 


(£jC 


Q 


cc<ap . cc 


c <r 


C" 


« . 


tf^C 


(^ 


ccm,^ cc 


CC' 


C 


( c_ < 


c 


<L 


CC!v C 


C C i 


C S 8 


C .' 




cc 


*C<£jp; -'cc. 


'■( C'A 


r" ..<H 


-'- *^' 


*"" 






c< 


■ 1 


-C 


5»^ 


cc 


-.CT- cc 


C 


f\ 


c < 


^ 


cc 


£■«:. ,c ; 


*c 


: i 


"■ C ' 

«c 


C 

c 


cc 
cc. 


lit 1 


c 






i 


(C 


£ : cj c 


c 

c:c- 


i 


; ^C- 


^ 


ct 


c «t" '<- ■ 


« C c 


C 


^MT" 


5- 


- 


St' ctx- < 


cc 


A 


«c 


y 


f c ■ 


c ' - -ci; - a " 


c 


c . 


, ^ubt" 




<(. 


Emm 

' CC iC : 


cc 
cc 

c- 


r <cC 

c 




y< 

C 
C 

c 
c 


- ■ ( c 

,'c • 


St « zc :- 


CM 


St <C- ■<;, 


O'^ 


c 


-.^*- 


-- - 


;Sr ccc;:.. 


c 

ccc 

c<c 




4SC 


"C 


I CC 


c 

■c'C 
& 

■AC 


■ -; :v 


;c 

C c 


_ <c 


<8b <s--^ ■• 


cc 


- <ta 


c < 


~j_ 'K 


•«C <f < , 


cc 


~ ^1 


CC 


\ 


*C; <C <a ■■ 


cc 


4 


Cc < 


<c. <£ • ( " 


cc 


c 


St:- 


C' 


«L CC- - 1 ' 


cc 




«c 


c 


«L: <CC- 


cc 


T 


«c 


:c-. 



c 


cd. 


Cj 


c«c 


^ 


0*2 


£ 


C«d 


{_ 


oc 


c 


oc: 


«C 



( C 



<? c< 






, cc <sC CC ^ 

iar «c<_ cc .* 

r& cc %.cc < 

-<£ cc 
^ tC C< ' 

■"" <:c cc 
' 43: C< 
tc cc 
*- «^c c<. 
*■ *rc cc < 

c cc <£Tc< 
c cc «^ 



cc 



Ll 


<_ e 




[t 


c C 


c 


j^- 


<c c 




<f 


< c 




^^ 


cc 


< 


JJ 


.cc 
cc 


c 

c 


^[^ 


cc 


C 


<: 


cc 


c 


< 


I cc 


c 


<: 


CO 




«r 


cc < 





c 



^« 


c 


c 


C 


c 


C 


c 


c 


c 


c 


c 


c 


c 


c 


es 


c 


" c 


c 


c 


c 


c 


c 


c 


c 


^ c 


c 


c c 


c 


«aC 


c c 


<<: 


c,c« 


<C 


C c 


<x 


c < 


cc 


CC< 


tX < 


:c< 


cr c 


Cd 


<r c 


CJC 


-C C 


c*r 



. 


<L 


C c 




CL 


CC 


. 


a 


sCcc 




G 


cc« 


c 


CI 


cccsc 


c 


CL 


<CC< 


< - 


Cc 


«XTC< 


1 


c 


c< 


," 


cc 


( < 


« 


c 

cc 


cc<< 

• 



C< < <L 



